THE GALLERY OF 19TH-CENTURY POLISH ART IN THE SUKIENNICE (THE CLOTH HALL)

Introduction

The 19th century Polish Art Gallery in the Sukiennice (Cloth Hall) is the oldest branch of the National Museum in Kraków. The exhibition is located on the second floor of the Sukiennice building, one of the most recognisable architectural symbols of Kraków. The entrance to the National Museum is located at the longer frontage of the Sukiennice, to the right of the passage to the hall with stalls, looking from the Adam Mickiewicz monument. Located on the ground floor are the ticket office and the museum store. From there, you go to the first floor by elevator or a spiral staircase, passing along the way to the cloakroom and the entrance to the terrace. The permanent exhibition is displayed in four rooms.

History of the Gallery

The idea of establishing the first National Museum in Poland open to the public was first conceived for the Sukiennice. It was here that the headquarters of this institution was located for many years.      The history of the building dates back to medieval times. In the middle of the 14th century, during the reign of King Casimir the Great, a Gothic hall was erected on the site of the earlier 13th century stalls. It was used to trade, among other things, in “sukno” or broadcloth, a costly fabric used in making clothing. Hence the origin of the building's name, which has remained popular to the present day. In the mid-16th century, the Sukiennice building was rebuilt in the Renaissance style. By the end of the 18th century, in addition to its previous function as a merchant and warehouse, balls and receptions were held here in honour of luminaries visiting the city. Numerous patriotic celebrations were also held there. When Poland lost its independence, it acquired a deeper, symbolic meaning. The Sukiennice, located in the heart of Kraków, became an important location for national culture. In 1870, the mayor of Kraków, Józef Dietl, regarded the restoration of the building as one of his most important tasks. He intended to use the upper floor of the building for the purposes of a museum. The restoration of the Sukiennice began in 1877, already during the presidency of Mikołaj Zyblikiewicz. The design, by Tomasz Pryliński, envisaged reconstruction in an eclectic spirit, combining both Gothic and Renaissance styles. At that time, the surroundings of the Sukiennice were put in order, and the building was given its current shape.             The formal opening of the Sukiennice took place on 3 October 1879, combined with the jubilee celebration of the creative work of Józef Ignacy Kraszewski. Two days later, on 5 October, during the gala ball, an announcement was made that the painter Henryk Siemiradzki, a painter, had donated his painting “Nero's Torches” to the city. To this day, it is still on display in the Sukiennice Gallery, as the work was entered as number one in the Museum's inventory. This extraordinary gift marked the beginning of the collection. Subsequent events unfolded at a rapid pace. Following Siemiradzki's example, more artists and collectors spontaneously donated their works to the Museum. Soon the City Council passed a resolution to establish a National Museum in Kraków.             The Museum began to operate as an institution in 1883. At first, it was located mainly in the south wing of the building. The collection grew at a rapid pace. This increased the museum space and made it possible to separate ancient art from the 19th- and 20th-century collections. In 1902, a new permanent exhibition was opened to the public. Until the outbreak of WWI, the Sukiennice Gallery survived in its essential form, enriched by further donations.             In 1940, the collection was evacuated to the Czapski Palace, on Piłsudski Street, and to the Technical and Industrial Museum building on Smoleńsk Street. During WWI, the deserted Sukiennice was taken over by German Nazis. Among other things, they organised an exhibition of Japanese art there.             After the war, the Sukiennice Gallery was restored, following the original layout and appearance of the exhibits. Soon, the Museum became a state institution under the Ministry of Culture. The appearance of the Gallery changed many times. In 1950, the permanent exhibition included works of Polish painting and sculpture from the mid-18th century to 1945. This character was essentially maintained until 1970. Five years later, another change was made, aiming to recreate the 19th century appearance of the rooms.

The Gallery today

The 19th century Polish Art Gallery in Sukiennice took on its contemporary appearance in 2010, after a major four-year renovation. During the work, the collections were located in the castle in Niepołomice, where they viewed by the public. As a result, new spaces were also adapted, including a changing exhibition room and viewing terraces. The concept of the exhibition we present to you follows the existing knowledge of Polish art of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Special attention has been given to works whose content reflects the character of Polish Romanticism, centred on the idea of regaining independence. The layout of the exhibition emphasises the historical character of the Gallery in Sukiennice, while at the same time organising the most significant phenomena in 19th century Polish art chronologically and by themes. The curators of the exhibition are Barbara Ciciora-Czwórnóg and Aleksandra Krypczyk-de Barra.

The Bacciarelli Room: the Enlightenment

Polish art of the Age of Enlightenment was not uniform. It encompassed a variety of intellectual currents and artistic trends that were prevalent in the second half of the 18th century and affected the development of painting and sculpture of the following century.             Changes in modern Polish art were patronised by King Stanisław August Poniatowski, a great patron and lover of art. The monarch's ambitions were immense. He strove to introduce reforms of the political system. He knew that art was an important part of state cultural policy. Not only did he bring in artists from abroad, but he also organised a system of training Polish artists at home and abroad, laying the groundwork for the development of Polish painting on the Western European model. Through the selection of subjects for works he commissioned, he pointed to important events and historical figures. They were to serve as models of patriotic attitudes.             At this time, different artistic traditions and the various tastes of sponsors coexisted and intermingled. After the middle of the 18th century, Polish painting was dominated by the classicism of the Roman and Parisian academies, whose splendour and decorativeness satisfied the need for representation of the royal court. At the end of the 18th century, the subtle painting adopted from the Vienna academy and fashionable English painting, which appealed to the wealthy nobility, grew popular. A very large number of portraits were painted. At the beginning of the 19th century, the neoclassical trend appeared, finding an audience among the nobility supporting Napoleon.             After Poland lost its independence in 1795 and was divided between three partitioning powers, Russia, Prussia and Austria, national themes developed intensively. National consciousness based on knowledge of the history and culture of one's country was promoted, uniting Poles.

Marcello Bacciarelli, Portrait of Stanisław August Poniatowski in his Coronation Attire, [ca 1790] – replica

A magnificent royal portrait towers over the Enlightenment Room. The monarch ordered his portrait shortly after the election in 1764, when he was elected the Polish monarch. At the beginning of his reign, he was unpopular with the nobility. He, therefore, needed a magnificent portrait, emphasising the importance of his person as King of Poland and perpetuating the faith in the legitimacy of the power he assumed, in fact, with the clear support of Russia. He commissioned the foreign painter Marcello Bacciarelli to create this portrait. This Italian artist had previously worked in Dresden and Vienna. He arrived in Warsaw with the court of August III Sas. He was a talented portraitist, painting on commission for members of the aristocracy. In the portrait on display, Bacciarelli created a canonical image of the monarch. The king is depicted in his magnificent coronation attire: an ermine fur-lined red coat decorated with Polish eagles, a silver frock coat and trousers, and a fashionable hairstyle. His right hand rests on a regiment, or short staff, a sign of military command, symbolising both political power and monarchical virtues. Just beside him, the royal insignia of authority – the crown and orb – are visible on a purple cushion.             The figure of the king is light, refined and full of elegance and charm, which was in keeping with the fashion of the time. The portrait in coronation attire pleased the king so much that he made Bacciarelli his court painter, elevating him into the ranks of the nobility. He entrusted him with numerous artistic and architectural assignments and projects. The artist recreated the image several times, making original replicas of his own composition. One of these is the portrait presented here. Similar portraits, but showing the full figure, can be seen in the National Museum in Poznań.

Marcello Bacciarelli, The Treaty of Khotyn, 1796

The Treaty of Khotyn is one of a cycle of six paintings depicting events in Polish history. Bacciarelli painted them in 1796 for Stanisław August Poniatowski, who was then in Grodno. This occurred after the third partition of Poland and the final collapse of the country. These works were scaled-down copies of original paintings adorning the Knights' Hall of the Royal Castle in Warsaw. The iconographic programme of interior decoration was intended to emphasise the peaceful achievements in the advancement of civilisation by his predecessors. The cycle of paintings, six of which are on display in the Sukiennice, was the graphic expression of a concept by Stanisław August: a representation of the ideal ruler through the embodiment of virtues in a succession of Polish monarchs. The painting The Treaty of Khotyn depicts the truce between Poland and Turkey concluded at Khotyn in 1621. It ended a war that had started in 1620. In the painting, Stanislaw Lubomirski shakes hands with the Turkish Grand Vizier, Dilevar Pasha, in a symbolic gesture of agreement. Above them stands Prince Władysław Vasa - the future King Władysław IV of Poland, who, together with Lubomirski, took command in the battle after the death of the Lithuanian Hetman, Jan Karol Chodkiewicz. In the background, under a tent, Chodkiewicz can be seen lying on a bier. Next to him is the figure of Jakub Sobieski, the father of King Jan III, who took part in the negotiations. He is depicted wearing a delia, a deep blue coat and a high-peaked kalpak on his head, typical for the nobility of that time. Bacciarelli depicted the event using the allegorical conventions characteristic of the painting of the period. History as an academic discipline was only in its infancy, as were artists' explorations of the past.

Jakub Tatarkiewicz, Psyche Dying, 1830

Themes drawn from ancient mythology were popular at the turn of the 19th century among neo-classicists who were passionate about antiquity. The sculpture made of marble by Jakub Tatarkiewicz was inspired by a Greek myth: the love story of Cupid, the Roman counterpart of the Greek Eros and Psyche. Jakub Tatarkiewicz, a Polish sculptor, went to Rome on a scholarship and studied in the studio of Bertel Thorvaldsen, a prominent neoclassical sculptor. In 1828 he modelled a study of sculpture, drawing on both the ancient tradition of depicting the winged figure of Psyche and the ancient myth itself. He depicted the moment when Psyche, abandoned by Cupid, faints in despair. Next to her lies an olive lamp, the cause of the tragedy and the unmasking of the Greek god. In 1829, Tatarkiewicz completed the sculpture in marble. A year later, he showed it, along with his other Roman works, at an exhibition in Warsaw. He became known to the Polish public as an outstanding classicist whose sculptures were characterised by clarity and static arrangement, smooth lines, clear contours and subtle modelling.

The Michałowski Room: Romanticism. Toward a national art

The works exhibited in this room are diverse in style and subject matter. Unlike literature or music, Romanticism in the visual arts was not homogenous in terms of stylistic expression. The art of the Romantic era was distinguished by breaking existing patterns and a diversity of forms. Works of art were influenced by strong expression, moodiness and contrasts. In Poland, the development of Romanticism dates back to the 1820s, with a decline after 1863, with the defeat of the January Uprising. The most significant feature of Polish Romanticism was its orientation toward patriotism and independence. This was due to dramatic historical events – the collapse of the Polish state and several unsuccessful attempts to restore independence. Polish art of this period was ideological in nature, oriented primarily to social needs. There was a discussion on the shape and role of national art. It came to be understood that the main duties of the artist were to shape attitudes, solidify hearts and perpetuate national mythology. The overriding goal was to ensure the survival of Polish tradition and culture despite the loss of independence. Artists were often educated and worked in exile. Stylistically, the art followed the trends of European art at the time. The dominant influence was that of the French Romantics. Also of great importance were inspirations from Dresden, St. Petersburg, Vienna, Munich and Rome. Interest in national history influenced the development of history and landscape painting. They also painted genre scenes, which showed the native landscape and the life of the people. Over time, the trend toward realism grew stronger. In many respects, Romanticism in Polish art continued until the end of the century.

Wojciech Korneli Stattler, Maccabees, 1830-42

The topic of this painting is the story of the Maccabees, as described in the Old Testament, who organised an armed uprising between 175 and 164 BCE to defend their ancestral faith against the despotic rule of Antiochus IV of Syria. The ruler was a tributary to the Roman Republic. He ordered the Maccabees to renounce their faith and humble themselves before pagan gods, which provoked them into defiance. In painting this image, Stattler created a simultaneous illustration of several events unfolding at different times: the announcement of the order, the Maccabean Revolt and its tragic consequences. The subject was suggested to the artist by Adam Mickiewicz himself. He suggested that the painter look for a story in the Holy Scriptures in which analogies could be found to the situation in Poland. The depiction of the heroic revolt of the Maccabees against Roman occupiers was an allegory of the suffering of Poles inciting national uprisings. Hence, symbols alluding to the Poles' struggle for independence appear in the painting: a hammer and broken chains lying on the altar, which symbolises the hope for liberation. The artist expressed Romantic content through an academic form. The canvas is a good representation of his work, oscillating between Classicism and Romanticism. The painter's belief in the unique role of the artist in society was instilled in his students, including Jan Matejko.

Piotr Michałowski, Somosierra, 1844-55

This work is displayed in the centre of the room. The painting depicts the daring charge of the Polish Light Cavalry in the Somosierra Pass in the Sierra de Guadarrama Mountains in Old Castile, which took place on 30 November 1808. This attack, carried out by a squadron of the First Regiment of Polish Light Cavalry Guards under Jan Hipolit Kozietulski, lasted just eight minutes. Owing to its incredible momentum, the charge opened the road to Madrid for Napoleon's troops. In Polish tradition, Somosierra soon became a symbol of the will to fight for the homeland, of fearless courage and cavalry bravado. For Michałowski, it was an important theme that he took up repeatedly in his paintings and sketches. He said, “This battle, pressed into a ravine, should look like a fiery bolt of lightning, cutting through the canvas from the bottom to the top”. The composition of the painting is maintained in a masterfully varied range of browns and greys. It depicts a gorge crossed with a vigorous, broken line, filled with an agitated stream of people and horses hurtling upwards towards a pass shrouded in luminous mist. This vision of battle with Romantic bravura, placed on the canvas, occupies a central place among Piotr Michałowski's numerous works devoted to military and battle themes. Michałowski was clearly inspired by the works of French Romantic painters. This is evidenced by the dark, limited colour palette, numerous chiaroscuro contrasts and a free, sweeping manner of painting with visible brush marks and varied textures. Piotr Michałowski is one of the best representatives of the Romantic era. Numerous other works by the artist are displayed in the room, including battle scenes, portraits of Napoleon in painting and sculpture, as well as psychologically deep portraits of Jewish people and of peasants, genre scenes and studies of horses. It is worth mentioning that the painter was skilful and successful manager of his landed estate while regarding his artistic creativity as a private activity.

Henryk Rodakowski, Portrait of General Henryk Dembiński, 1852

General Henryk Dembiński (1791-1864) was a veteran of the Napoleonic wars, a strategist and commander in the November Uprising and one of the leaders of the Hungarian Spring of Nations. Through his political and military endeavours, Dembiński was well known to French diplomacy. Rodakowski decided to show the portrait of him at the Paris Salon in 1852, a prestigious exhibition held annually in the French capital. He felt that the general was the perfect figure to remind the world of Poland's lost independence. The painting was awarded a Gold Medal, First Class, at the time. The artist depicted the general sitting pensively in a staff tent, with a battle scene visible in the distance. Some saw him as the embodiment of the Romantic topos of the “lost commander”. The work is of outstanding artistic merit. Rodakowski inscribed the composition in the foreground, with the figure of the main character, in the classical shape of an isosceles triangle. The noble, dark tonality of the canvas is composed of nuanced shades of black, browns, deep red and accents of ochre. The light, limning the figure of the leader, brings out his face most strongly. Rodakowski was a master at conveying the psychological depth of his subjects.

Artur Grottger, 1863 – Farewell and Greeting, diptych, 1865-66

A diptych is a work consisting of two parts. Grottger portrayed two crucial moments in the lives of the insurgents: the farewell before going into battle and the long-awaited return home to their families, paid for by the bitterness of defeat. The painting on the left, Farewell, shows a scene on the steps of a noble manor house. A young woman dressed in a dark crinoline gown bids farewell to a man, pinning a red and white cockade onto his cap. Bowing down slightly before her, the man looks up into her eyes. The figures are almost completely immersed in the shadow cast by the building; only the woman's hands and a fragment of the insurgent's face are illuminated. In the background, bathed in sunlight, the artist has shown a second man with his back turned, presumably waiting for his comrade-in-arms. The painting on the right, Greeting, is a nocturne depicting the return of an insurgent who has lost his right arm in battle. The encounter takes place in a garden, under cover of darkness. We see a kneeling man. Bowing his head sadly, he kisses the hand of his beloved, who is dressed in a white gown gleaming in the moonlight. At his feet lies a four-pointed konfederatka cap. The artist creates characters that are both typical and ideal: a brave, anonymous insurgent, a nobleman, and a patriotic Polish woman bidding farewell to her beloved who is setting off to fight for the freedom of the homeland and then faithfully awaiting his return. The artist is one of the most important of the Romantic era in Poland. Due to his frail health, he was unable to take part in the struggle. He affected the imagination of Poles primarily through his work as a graphic artist. The motifs he used enduringly entered the repertoire of Polish Romantic iconography permanently.

Aleksander Kotsis, The Reaper, [ca 1862]

Aleksander Kotsis worked mainly in landscape and genre painting, depicting scenes from the life of common people, immortalising the plight and woes of peasants near Kraków and the highlanders of the Tatra Mountains. In many of Kotsis's peasant-themed works, realism in representation is combined with a somewhat melancholic mood. The Reaper depicts an anonymous peasant with a scythe on his shoulder, facing away from the viewer, dressed in a sukmana, a traditional kind of coat. He is standing on the edge of a hill and gazing at Kościuszko Mound on the horizon. The painting was executed just before the outbreak of the January Uprising. It is a reminder of the need to unite and involve all social strata in the cause of independence. The scythe here has a symbolic meaning. It recalls the role of the peasants' heroic struggle in the Kościuszko Uprising, when it was used as an effective weapon. The idea of national solidarity and the hushed mood associated with a deep experience of nature link the painting with A Farmer's Evening Prayer, another work by the artist exhibited in this room.

The Siemiradzki Room: Around the Academy

The room, called Around the Academy, displays paintings and sculptures created in the realm of art taught at art academies and shown in exhibitions of official art, usually corresponding to the interests of the elite and wealthier segments of society. In the 19th century, art academies shaped European painting, teaching widely accepted principles developed in the 17th century by the academy in Paris. According to these, art gives tangible shape to ideal beauty and expresses noble content, drawn from Scripture, mythology, literature and history, which should be presented in a painting as a story, a history. In the academic hierarchy of genres, history historical painting stood at the top because by painting a story, the artist could show his erudition based on a literary text. Less valued were landscape, portrait and genre painting, while still life was placed at the bottom. These principles aroused opposition leading to the development of new directions, such as realism and impressionism. In common parlance, the term ''academicism” in 19th-century art is used to describe works of painting and sculpture, which are characterised by lofty content and precision in finishing details, the so-called fini. Meanwhile, in the second half of the 19th century, when realism gradually supplanted the depiction of lofty ideas, not all academic instructors adhered to these principles. The constant changes that the notions of academia and the rules of academic painting underwent in the 19th century lie behind the decision to name the exhibition in the Sukiennice Around the Academy.

Jan Matejko, Vernyhora, 1883-84

Jan Matejko began working on this painting as early as the 1870s, at a time when the conflict between Rusyns and Poles in Ukraine had intensified. He worked for a long time on an appropriate formula for the work, changing the concept many times. Vernyhora, a Ukrainian bard who lived in the second half of the 18th century, is a historical figure to some and a legendary one to others. His prophecies about the fate of Poland and Ukraine, which were recorded in Romantic literature, were quite vivid in Matejko's time. The artist depicted Vernyhora sitting on a hill with an unsettling expression on his face and his hands raised in a prophetic gesture, testifying to a moment of visionary rapture. The old man, dressed in a red and white robe with an Orthodox cross on his chest, is surrounded by numerous figures: a Cossack supporting him with both hands, a girl in Ukrainian folk clothing gazing at the prophet, a pair of young people listening to the prophecy, a Cossack in a fur hat leaning on a rifle, a nobleman writing down Vernyhora's words. In a lower part of the painting, Matejko depicts the figure of a young boy, probably a travelling companion of the old bard, holding a metal gorget bearing an image of the Virgin Mary. Next to him is a figure of an Orthodox cleric listening to the bard's words, with a pile of knives lying at his feet. The artist alluded here to the scene of the ordination of knives described in Juliusz Słowacki's poem Beniowski. He composed the canvas guided by his own historiosophy, searching for the causes and consequences of the Polish-Ukrainian conflict. Every element of the painting is significant here. The eeriness of the scene is emphasised by the ominous bats and the full moon. Its radiance forms a luminous halo around the head of the bard, who appears as a saint and prophet. The artist chose to sacralise the image to emphasise the supernatural, divine source of the prophecies proclaimed.             Convinced of the common origin of Poles and Rusyns and the identity of their culture, Matejko was an advocate of Polish-Ukrainian reconciliation. The figure of Vernyhora is an alter ego of the artist himself, who considered himself a prophet of his own time. Matejko gave the figure of the nobleman writing down the bard's words the features of Marian Gorzkowski, his personal secretary.

Tadeusz Ajdukiewicz, Portrait of Helena Modrzejewska, 1880

This is the artist's best-known work. The circumstances of the creation of this representative portrait are quite interesting. It was conceived during a ball given on 3 October 1879 in the Sukiennice, an event connected with the beginnings of the National Museum. The ball was held during the jubilee celebrations of Ignacy Kraszewski, which brought guests from all three partitions. It took place just after the actress's first performance in Poland and her return from a trip to America. Helena Modrzejewska, one of the most famous and acclaimed actresses, adored by Polish audiences, had pursued a stage career overseas. Hailed as the “queen of the Polish theatre” at a ball in the Sukiennice, she appeared in a dazzling white dress. Tadeusz Ajdukiewicz decided to portray her and give the painting as a gift to the newly established Museum, thus following in the footsteps of Henryk Siemiradzki. The painting was painted in 1880 and put on display for the general public in the Sukiennice three years later. The portrait evoked conflicting emotions, and there was speculation as to whether it was faithful to its subject. Ajdukiewicz, as a skilful portraitist, rendered with mastery the richness of textures and details: the shimmering dress, the texture of the tapestry in the background, the details of the clothing and accessories or the rough fur of the greyhound accompanying the artist. In the foyer of the Old National Theatre in Kraków, which still bears the artist's name, there is a copy of this famous portrait.

Jan Matejko, The Prussian Homage, 1882

In 1882, Jan Matejko donated this painting to the Polish nation, wishing it would be placed in the Wawel Royal Castle. In this way, he wanted to induce the Austrian authorities to carry out repairs to the castle. In return for the valuable gift, Kraków granted him honorary citizenship. Difficulties that arose during the ongoing conservation of the Wawel Castle led to the huge canvas being hung in 1885 in the Sukiennice, the seat of the National Museum in Kraków. The artist depicted an event that took place in Kraków's Market Square on 10 April 1525. Surrounded by the royal court and townspeople, the act of homage of Albrecht Hohenzollern to the Polish king took place, an act that ended the disputes over primacy over the northern lands of Poland. In his characteristic manner, Matejko used his vast historical knowledge to compose the painting, gathering in it all the people he knew, thanks to whom the event could have taken place: royal officials, noblemen, the court, members of the clergy and townspeople. In doing so, he used his own vast collection of clothing and props. He studied the details of historical memorabilia preserved, for example, in the cathedral treasury. He gave the historical figures the features of contemporary respectable citizens, his family and friends, who posed for the painting. At the same time, to facilitate the reception of the work, he modernised the architectural background of the event - although the Sukiennice loggia has the form it took after the Renaissance reconstruction, the characteristic tower copulas of St Mary's Basilica did not appear on the towers until 1529.            The artist included two self-portraits in the painting, alter egos of himself hidden in the figures of Stańczyk, the court jester, and Bartolomeo Berrecci, the king's distinguished architect. The vision created in this manner, while not always historically correct – a fact of which the artist was aware – was intended to captivate and delight the viewer with the magnificence of the painting. It was also intended to provoke reflection on the assessment of the act of homage and its consequences.             An integral part of the work is a frame designed by Matejko, decorated with motifs taken from the Sigismund Chapel, as well as the coats of arms of Bona Sforza, the Sigismund and Lithuanian Coats of Arms, and the lands of Muntenia, Wallachia, the Duchy of Mazovia and the Duchy of Prussia. Originally, the frame bore a quotation from St Paul's letter to the Romans: “Si Deus nobiscum quis contra nos?”

Henryk Siemiradzki, Nero’s Torches, 1876

The famous painting was donated by the artist in 1879, as the first item in the collection of the National Museum in Kraków. It therefore is item number one in the Museum's inventory. On the huge canvas, Siemiradzki masterly developed the theme of the persecution of Christians by the despot Nero. The ancients accused him of the burning of Rome in 64. The Emperor, fearing the consequences, blamed Christians who were unpopular in Roman society. The artist depicted the scene of them being burned alive in Nero's gardens. He portrayed the theme described by Seneca and Tacitus as a universal one, using period props in accordance with the academic canon. His representations of reliefs and architecture were taken from ancient monuments preserved in Rome, Pompeii and Naples. He portrayed a variety of emotions on the faces of the witnesses to the event: from the moral savagery of drunken Romans through the cold indifference of beautiful ladies and handsome young men to fear and compassion towards the suffering Christians. He contrasted two milieus: the Roman elite, mostly demoralised or intimidated by the despotic Nero, and the steadfast Christians dying for their faith. The ideological dimension was emphasised by the Latin inscription shown on the frame of the painting. It refers to the Gospel of St John: “And the light shines in the darkness, and the darkness has not taken hold of it”. In Poland and Russia, the work was interpreted as an expression of opposition to the violence and despotic policies of the Tsar. It was a symbol of the future triumph of the despised and the weak.

Maurycy Gottlieb, Ahasuerus, 1876

Maurycy Gottlieb is the most famous and talented Jewish pupil of Jan Matejko. He began his artistic studies in Vienna. Fascinated by Matejko's work, he decided to transfer to the Kraków School of Fine Arts. Due to the harassment he faced, after only a year, he moved to Munich and entered the Academy there. The portrait Ahasuerus is a symbolic image of the artist himself. The representation has been interpreted by scholars as a “portrait of the soul”. It represents a synthesis of the two mythical figures of Ahasuerus – the Wandering Jew and the Old Testament Persian king, who, influenced by his love for his wife Esther, was to reverse his judgement and save the Jewish people from extinction. In this ambiguous, deeply philosophical image, the artist measured himself against his Jewish identity. On the one hand, Ahasuerus is the personification of suffering and misery due to his eternal wandering, and yet on the other, of prosperity and wealth. The melancholy depiction of a young man of Eastern beauty stands in contrast to the attributes of power: the crown and the throne. The masterly strokes of the painting are rich and sophisticated. The artist skilfully operates with a light, theatrically bringing out the most significant elements. He uses a noble, limited amber colour range, blurs the contours, and paints with thin transparent layers to use impasto in other places. In Gottlieb's work, a kind of romantic emotionalism is evident, as well as inspiration from the paintings of Rembrandt.

The Chełmoński Room: Realism, Polish Impressionism, the beginnings of Symbolism

This room presents the most important phenomena in Polish painting of the second half of the 19th century. Viewing the paintings and sculptures, we can trace the development of realism and naturalism, impressionism, as well as early examples of symbolism. Landscape and genre painting are predominant among the works on display. At the end of the 19th century, it underwent a period of particularly strong development. In planning this exhibition, artists who set new trends and interesting formal solutions were singled out. The role of women artists and muses was also emphasised.             In the second half of the 19th century, paintings of battles and Oriental themes remained popular. However, not only were battle scenes full of colourful expression shown, but genre subjects, depicting the everyday life of the landed gentry, bourgeoisie and peasants, were increasingly taken up. Scenes of everyday village life were gaining popularity. Genre paintings also had their aficionados and buyers abroad. The landscape genre developed dynamically. Numerous symbolic scenes and landscapes were painted, characterised by moodiness and an unusual sense of colour.             In a country divided by partitions, artists were educated in local art centres: Warsaw, Kraków and Lviv. They also formed thriving art colonies in Rome, Paris and Munich. The streams of Realism and Naturalism came to be important. Artists increasingly worked in the open air. An important role in the creative explorations of the younger generation was played by the Polish Impressionism. This was only a partial adaptation of this school. Polish artists of the younger generation were inspired by the works of the French Impressionists, combining these with other schools.             At the end of the 19th century, artists began to create works combining Symbolism with the aesthetics of Expressionism. These already heralded the arrival of the next artistic era.

Jacek Malczewski, Introduction, 1890

Painted in a realistic convention, the painting presages a symbolic period in Jacek Malczewski's work. Reflections on the artist's vocation, the essence of his mission and responsibility would accompany him throughout his life. Malczewski was an extraordinarily talented but also an unruly pupil, whom Jan Matejko tried to convince to devote himself to history painting. After two years of study, the young student of the Kraków School of Fine Arts left for Paris, where he discovered a multitude of artistic directions. He continued to search for his own creative path. He was convinced of the uniqueness of his vocation, and linked it to a higher, not merely individual aim for his future work.             He then began work on a series of paintings inspired by the poetry of Juliusz Słowacki, depicting the fate of Polish exiles in Siberia. One example is Christmas Eve in Siberia, a painting we can view in the same room (on the wall to the left of the entrance). Drawing on the Romantic tradition, the artist initially chose a realistic style, closer to the naturalism promoted by the positivists. Eventually, he opted for a poetic vision of painting, turning to symbolism, both in content and form.             Malczewski was 36 years old when he painted Introduction. The word signifies a beginning, the initial section of a work. By depicting a pensive boy sitting on a bench against a backdrop of lush nature, he was seeking confirmation of the validity of his chosen profession as a painter, often condemned to poverty, lack of understanding and loneliness. Next to the Painter, surrounded by painting accessories, lies a roll of paper. It is a stencil used to reproduce patterns when painting walls. Malczewski wondered whether an artist should be an extreme individualist, faithful only to himself, or whether he had a responsibility for the artistic tasks he undertook. The problem of the artist's duty was instilled in him by Jan Matejko, who said, “Separating art from the homeland is not allowed!” The artist was intrigued by the act of creation, the relationship between the world of ideas and the visible world. He also depicted this theme in another painting, The Painter's Inspiration (also on display in this room).             Nature played a major role in his work. He often painted a person surrounded by nature in bloom, ripening and dying, inextricably linked to nature. For him, landscape was a vehicle for hidden, symbolic meanings.

Józef Szermentowski, Cattle descending to the watering hole, 1876

Józef Szermentowski was a member of the so-called Polish Barbizonians, a circle of painters influenced by the French landscape painters of the Barbizon school. The name comes from a group of painters working in the village of Barbizon, near Paris. It was here, from the 1830s, that French artists created landscapes based on the study of the local landscape. While wandering in the nearby countryside, they worked in the open air, making sketches to be used later as the basis for painting later in the studio. The way they worked and their approach to the subject matter was a breakthrough in art. It represented opposition to earlier, idealised compositions, juxtaposed with selected, often stylised, fragments of nature.             Szermentowski came into contact with the work of the Barbizon school while on scholarship in Paris. This encounter brought a breakthrough in his work. The painting we present here is one of the best examples of this trend in Polish painting. We see a plain surrounded by trees, with a flowing stream and a wooden bridge. Almost half of the composition is taken up by a sky with light clouds. The whole is dominated by a dark patch of expansive oaks. The artist paid close attention to the characteristics of the nature he depicted. The titular group of cattle forms a staffage, bringing the landscape to life. The size of the animal figures has been adapted to the scale of the landscape, forming an integral part of nature. The painting's colour range is bright and saturated, consisting of tones of green, brown, yellow, blue and white. This gives us the impression of a serene mood. The work seems to be full of a joyful affirmation of life. Also noteworthy is the delicate way in which the brush is handled. Softly laid down colour patches create a sophisticated texture. The artist is also interested in so-called luminist effects, i.e. the influence of sunlight on shapes and colours.

Maksymilian Gierymski, Gypsy Camp I, 1867-1868

The two small paintings presented in the gallery are nocturnes, or night-time landscapes. The artist painted two versions of the subject immediately after his arrival in Munich. On a vast plain, illuminated by the glow of the setting sun, a Roma encampment is visible. In the centre, people are gathering by the warm glow of a campfire, and nearby are silhouettes of resting horses. The prevailing semi-darkness and blurred contours make it difficult to recognise individual elements of the scene. The artist did not focus on depicting details precisely but on revealing the mood, full of nostalgia and lyricism. Maksymilian Gierymski was a master of creating a mood with the use of painting techniques. A specific mood, called Stimmung in German, was characteristic of the work of Polish landscape painters associated with the Munich art colony.             The harmoniously structured composition is divided horizontally into two balanced zones: earth and sky. The silhouettes of people and animals and the outlines of the camp blend into the landscape, creating the impression of integral coherence. This treatment illustrates the harmony between nature and human beings. Gierymski distributed the compositional and colour accents with exceptional sensitivity. Thanks to a subdued and sophisticated colour palette, and skilfully distributed contrasts of light and shadow, he wonderfully conveyed the atmosphere of peace and tranquillity that is characteristic of nightfall. He brought to an ordinary scene a universal and symbolic expression.

Władysław Malecki, Sejm of the Storks, 1879

This painting by Władysław Malecki is atmospheric and at the same time symbolic. It is an excellent example of what is called Stimmung painting. This type of atmospheric landscape became popular in Polish painting owing to artists working in Munich who formed a Polish artistic colony. One of the most prominent members of the circle was Władysław Malecki. The painting is in dark, solid tones and depicts an unusual scene. In a clearing, between giant willows, silhouettes of storks can be seen. They emerge from the semi-darkness of the swampy forest landscape as colour accents. The time of day seems undefined – the sun reflecting in the water may simultaneously suggest early morning or evening. Contrary to popular belief, the motif of storks over a floodplain was not typical of the Polish landscape only. Similar scenes may also have been observed by artists in other countries, e.g. around Munich. It seems that the message of this melancholy work is universal. The birds shown in their natural habitat symbolise the eternal laws of nature and the repeating rhythm of the cycle of seasons.

Józef Brandt, The Struggle for the Turkish Banner, 1879

Józef Brandt is regarded as one of the best Polish battle painters. He painted numerous battle scenes inspired by national history with extraordinary skill. He is particularly known for depicting battles between Poles and the Tatars or Cossacks in the 17th century. Like the novels of Henryk Sienkiewicz, these paintings were intended to “comfort hearts” after the loss of independence. They undoubtedly illustrated Polish dreams of lost power. At the same time, they perpetuated the Polish mythology of the nobility. For Józef Brant, painting battle scenes was also an excellent opportunity to demonstrate his superb knowledge of Eastern weaponry and the realities of battle. The artist amassed an impressive collection of props in his huge studio, which he used for his daily work. The painting depicting the struggle for the Turkish banner stands out for its enormous dynamism. It is a demonstration of his superb technical skills. The painter has reproduced the details of the clothing, weapons and harnesses, especially those of the Turkish troops, with expertise and photographic precision. Bold foreshortening of perspectives and stark contrasts enhance the impression of the violent force of the attack.

Samuel Hirszenberg, Yeshiva, 1887

In 19th-century Kraków, there was a very large Jewish minority. It is, therefore, not surprising that many artists came from this community. They took up a variety of subjects, following the current trends and artistic currents of the time. Some artists explicitly referred to local tradition, depicting the contemporary realities of life in the Jewish community, often in a metaphorical and symbolic manner.             One of these was Samuel Hirszenberg. After receiving a scholarship financed by Łódź industrialists, he started painting studies at the School of Fine Arts in Kraków. He then continued his studies in Munich and Paris. His works were exhibited and appreciated. The work on display here was awarded a silver medal at the World's Fair in Paris. The painting depicts a group of five men studying the Talmud, a sacred text of Judaism, which consists of rabbinical commentaries on the biblical Torah. The dark interior, lit by a dwindling candle, is shrouded in a dreamy atmosphere. The man with a bushy beard sitting to the right of the table is probably a teacher. He leans thoughtfully over a text. The other, weary of studying, has fallen asleep, laying his head on the book. The people shown on the left are engaged in vigorous discussion. Attention is drawn to the figure of the student seen opposite. His face is somewhat illuminated; his closed eyes testify to his reverie. Deep in contemplation, his thoughts seem to be elsewhere. Perhaps he is questioning what he has devoted his time to. One supposes that the artist, in painting this scene, juxtaposed traditional religiosity with the vision of new ideas that many young members of the Jewish community may have had in mind.

Józef Chełmoński, Team of Four, 1881

This is the most important work exhibited in this room. It depicts a dynamic scene, full of vitality, of a wagon racing across the Ukrainian steppe. The impression of a team of horses galloping straight at the viewer is enhanced by the enormous size of the canvas, which fills the wall entirely. Team of Four represents the pinnacle of naturalism in Polish painting. Józef Chełmoński painted this work in Paris, which is confirmed by his signature in the lower right corner of the work. The work testifies to the superb technique of the artist, who, working in his Parisian studio, was able to depict the reality of the scene with great suggestiveness: an unstoppable coachman whipping four life-size horses, as if frozen in the frame. Significant for the composition were contemporary technological advances, namely photography. We know that painters working at the end of the 19th century also used it; perhaps this was the case with Chełmoński as well. The background of the painting is a monotonous and static landscape built up using a subdued colour palette. The artist seems to emphasise the harsh realities of the scene: the wind-swept faces of the peasants dressed in traditional clothing, mud splashing under the horses' hooves and leaden clouds hanging low over the land. Genre scenes of this type, regarded as exotic, were quite popular in Western Europe.             While living abroad, Chełmoński painted exclusively Polish paintings. He drew inspiration from the work of Józef Brandt and Juliusz Kossak, whose works can also be admired in this room. He was similarly fascinated by Ukrainian themes and the topic of movement in painting. The motif of speeding horses heading straight for the viewer Chełmoński took directly from the work of his professor from the Munich Academy of Fine Arts, Alexander (Sándor) Wagner.

Aleksander Gierymski, The Feast of Trumpets, 1890

The theme of this painting is the rituals associated with the festival of Rosh Hashanah, popularly known as the Feast of Trumpets, which is a celebration of the Jewish New Year. It commemorates the creation of the world and reminds us of God's judgement. During prayers, a ritual is performed to symbolically shake off sins into the water, accompanied by the sounds of the shofar, a special goat or ram's horn. Gierymski certainly could observe similar rituals many times in his hometown of Warsaw. This can be evidenced by the fact that the artist took up the subject of the Feast of Trumpets three times. The earliest version of The Feast of Trumpets was created in 1884 in Warsaw and is kept in the National Museum there. The other two, one of which is considered lost and the other which is on display in the Sukiennice, were created in 1890 while the artist was in Munich. This was the artist's second stay in the city, after studying at the Academy of Fine Arts there between 1868 and 1872. Gierymski travelled extensively in Europe, also visiting Alpine towns with his older brother Aleksander. He also lived in Italy, including Rome and Florence. He also travelled to Paris on several occasions. All this meant that he was well acquainted with current trends in art and familiar with the artistic elite of his era. In painting, he was primarily interested in light, which is clearly apparent in The Feast of Trumpets. The painting is devoid of anecdotes. The static composition allows us to focus solely on the light effects observed as dusk falls. The work is imbued with a mood of reverie and prayerful meditation, which is emphasised by the contrasts between light and shadow that fill the canvas.

Witold Pruszkowski, Rusałki, 1877

The theme of rusałki (Slavic water nymphs) and other creatures from Slavic mythology was often taken up by artists of the second half of the 19th century. It combined a fascination with esotericism and the afterlife, characteristic of the art of the era, with folk motifs drawn from local tradition. The phenomenon was part of a broader trend of seeking national styles linked to the increasingly firm grounding of the national idea. According to Slavic folk tales, rusałki were believed to be the spirits of women who had suffered harm and injustice at the hands of men during their lives. They take revenge on them after death, seducing them and leading them to certain doom. Pruszkowski set the scene with the nymphs in a nocturnal, open-air setting, also introducing an element of the metaphysical mystery of nature into the picture. The nymphs themselves are depicted as ruddy, blushing girls in Ukrainian folk costumes. It was this element that caused the most controversy. According to critics, the realism and vitality emanating from the nymphs in the painting conflicted with their oneiric origins. However, such a depiction was accepted in Polish paintings. Similar depictions of fairy godmothers as country girls can be found, for example, in Jacek Malczewski.

Aleksander Gierymski, Evening on the Seine, 1893

Aleksander Gierymski was a forerunner of luminist and colourist experiments in Polish painting. He often painted landscapes imbued with Stimmung (from the German: mood), characteristic of the work known as the Polish Munich painters, i.e. artists who gathered around the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich in the second half of the 19th century. They were keen on landscape painting, nocturnes and vedutas, creating through their form a fleeting impression of peace, quiet and mood. Their fondness for subdued colours and frequent depiction of fog and diffused light earned this painting the moniker Munich “sauces” among malicious critics. However, there is no doubt that the Stimmung landscape represented a breakthrough in painting. With its experiments with light and local colour, it was a step towards Impressionism. Evening on the Seine is just such a Stimmung landscape. Here, Gierymski captures the moment when the soft, pinkish light of the setting sun dissipates in the evening mist rising from the river. To convey the flickering light, Gierymski used the method of divisionism, well-known among the Impressionists, by laying down thin streaks of countless shades of blue, grey and orange next to each other.

Aleksander Gierymski, The Florentine Page, 1884

This small painting demonstrates this artist’s search for innovative colour and formal techniques. Gierymski drew on 16th-century Northern Italian painting, in which colour was the dominant value. The artist travelled extensively in Italy, knowing quite well all the major art galleries in Rome, Florence and Venice. A love of the Venetian big four, Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto and Giorgione, was also typical for artists of his generation. From the Renaissance masters they learned how to use colour to build up and isolate forms, as well as to compose and integrate a painting optically. The Florentine Page is a small-scale masterpiece which integrates both Alexander Gierymski’s excellent technical skills and his sense of light and colour.

Walery Gadomski, Salome, 1883

Walery Gadomski drew on the well-known biblical motif of Salome, the daughter of Herodias, who, at her mother's insistence, asked King Herod Antipas to give her the head of John the Baptist in exchange for her dancing for him. This theme was eagerly taken up by artists in both painting and sculpture. It often provided a pretext for exotic stylisation. The figure of Salome became synonymous with devastating beauty and seductive power, so powerful that it could incite crime. Cruelty and eroticism clothed in Eastern costume were very popular in the academic art of the time in both painting and sculpture. Gadomski depicted Salome on her way to her mother with a macabre gift. The striking details, rendered by the sculptor with great care, emphasise the erotic aura that emanates from the dancer. Under the thin fabric, her alluring curves are clearly visible. The entire composition, executed in marble, is light and slender, and the twist of Salome’s head, which seems to turn away from the severed head of the saint, lends a dynamic quality to the composition as a whole.

Władysław Podkowiński, Landscape with a Haystack, 1893

In this seemingly banal landscape motif, Podkowiński showed off his masterful grasp of the nuances of light and shadow and colour. The strong influence of the French Impressionists can be seen here. He became acquainted with their painting while staying in Paris with his friend, the painter Józef Pankiewicz. The Impressionist approach to light and colour, as well as his attempts to convey the mood of the moment, are clearly echoed in Landscape with a Haystack. In the painting, the artist juxtaposes the rippling and cool-coloured surface of the water with a row of trees along the banks reflected in it. The reflections of light on the surface of the water are painted using the method of divisionism. This method involves painting with pure colours laid down in small brushstrokes, so that only in the eye of the viewer do the colours blend together to produce a luminous effect. The titular haystack, although it is in the background, attracts attention by being the brightest point in the painting.

Józef Pankiewicz, The Hay Wagon, 1890

In 1889, Józef Pankiewicz and Władysław Podkowiński visited Paris, where they encountered works by, among others, Édouard Manet, Paul Cezanne, August Rodin or Paul Gauguin. Their work made a great impression on Pankiewicz, particularly the paintings of Manet. This visit initiated a period of Impressionist experimentation in his work. These include The Hay Wagon. Painted in small, irregular, texturally applied patches, it is an almost abstract representation. Noteworthy is the juxtaposition of pastel colour tones, which enhances the impression of shimmering air on a hot day. However, Pankiewicz’s attempts to transfer the achievements of French Impressionism to Polish soil met with incomprehension and criticism. In his later work, Pankiewicz turned to moody symbolism.

Leon Wyczółkowski, Ploughing in Ukraine, 1892

The painting on display is a pure study of colour and light and proof that Leon Wyczółkowski too, shared the then common desire to interpret the achievements of French Impressionism. The artist used only pure colours in the painting, placing them on the canvas in small, clear brushstrokes, so that the whole appears to be a vibrating, rippling picture. The furrows of ploughed earth in the light of the early morning seem to vibrate with flecks of reds, yellows and cobalt streaks of shadows, merging into a glowing purple in the perception of the viewer. Painted in broad patches, the backs of the oxen appear blue-grey in the shadows and pale yellow in the sun. The colours are sharp, luminous and rippling, giving an impression of the movement of air and the flickering of sunlight. This is the painting that comes the closest to Impressionism in Wyczółkowski’s oeuvre. However, it does deviate from the principles of Impressionism in one fundamental respect. In contrast to the Impressionist practice of capturing an ephemeral phenomenon observed in nature in a single session, Ploughing was created in the studio based on studies made in the open air.

Anna Bilińska-Bohdanowiczowa, Self-portrait with a Palette, 1887

Women who found their vocation in painting at the turn of the 20th century did not have it easy. This was mainly due to reputable art schools being closed to women. Only a few financially independent women managed to practice art and educate themselves. Anna Bilińska was helped by a female friend’s last will and testament. She was the first Polish woman artist to study in Paris. Her style of painting was described as “masculine”, lacking the supposedly characteristic female meticulousness. Her self-portrait, which won her a silver medal at the 1887 Salon, depicts a seated woman in a painter’s smock with dishevelled hair. She looks as if she has squatted down for a moment while working in her studio. This is a portrait of a female painter, as evidenced by the painting tools held in her hands: worn brushes and a palette. It is a representation of a woman, very different from the salon portraits of upper-class ladies. The artist boldly looks directly at the viewer from the painting. Her image is not idealised. For Bilińska, it was a declaration of independence and the consistent pursuit of her chosen professional path.

Jan Stanisławski, Beehives in Ukraine, 1895

Beehives in Ukraine is one of the more recognisable paintings in which Stanisławski interprets the achievements of French Impressionism. One can see here the influences of Diffusionism and Pointillism, painting techniques used by the Impressionists and Post-Impressionists which consisted of limiting the colour palette to pure colours and painting with small brushstrokes or dots that merge into a patch of colour in the eye of the viewer. Stanisławski, enamoured of Ukrainian landscapes, created a whole series of small paintings showing the power of nature there. As a professor in the Landscape Department at the Academy of Fine Arts in Kraków, he often went outdoors with his students, which was a novelty when considering the academic custom of painting only in the studio. He recommended that students paint nature so ephemeral and exposed to the ravages of civilisation.

Władysław Podkowiński, Frenzy, 1894

Frenzy of Exultations is one of the most outstanding, and at the same time most controversial, paintings of Polish Symbolism. It was created out of the artist’s personal impulses, probably being an expression of Podkowiński’s unrequited love for Ewa Kotarbińska, a married woman and mother who was part of respectable society in Warsaw. The entire painting pulsates with palpable tension and eroticism. Its public showing in 1894 at the Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts in Warsaw caused a scandal and questions about the limits of good taste and the difference between art and pornography. Some saw a resemblance to Kotarbińska in the nude model. The commotion surrounding the work grew even stronger when Podkowiński entered the rooms of the Zachęta Gallery and, without a word, slashed the painting with a knife. Traces of this attack can still be seen on the surface of the canvas when viewed from the right angle. These events and the artist’s untimely death have made the work intriguing to this day, arousing strong emotions in viewers. The painting is in keeping with the spirit of its era, depicting a woman straight out of Schopenhauerian visions as a demonic being in control of her instincts. The impression is heightened by the dynamic, oblique composition based on juxtapositions of contrasting colours, the black of the steed emerging from an impenetrable dark background, and the light shades of the model’s pale pink body and the orange of her flaming hair.

Józef Chełmoński, Team of Four, 1881

Introduction

The 19th century Polish Art Gallery in the Sukiennice (Cloth Hall) is the oldest branch of the National Museum in Kraków. The exhibition is located on the second floor of the Sukiennice building, one of the most recognisable architectural symbols of Kraków. The entrance to the National Museum is located at the longer frontage of the Sukiennice, to the right of the passage to the hall with stalls, looking from the Adam Mickiewicz monument. Located on the ground floor are the ticket office and the museum store. From there, you go to the first floor by elevator or a spiral staircase, passing along the way to the cloakroom and the entrance to the terrace. The permanent exhibition is displayed in four rooms.

The Bacciarelli Room: the Enlightenment

Marcello Bacciarelli, The Treaty of Khotyn, 1796

Marcello Bacciarelli, Portrait of Stanisław August Poniatowski in his Coronation Attire, [ca 1790] – replica

The Michałowski Room: Romanticism. Toward a national art

Wojciech Korneli Stattler, Maccabees, 1830-42

Piotr Michałowski, Somosierra, 1844-55

Artur Grottger, 1863 – Farewell and Greeting, diptych, 1865-66

The Siemiradzki Room: Around the Academy

Tadeusz Ajdukiewicz, Portrait of Helena Modrzejewska, 1880

Jan Matejko, The Prussian Homage, 1882

Henryk Siemiradzki, Nero’s Torches, 1876

Maurycy Gottlieb, Ahasuerus, 1876

The Chełmoński Room: Realism, Polish Impressionism, the beginnings of Symbolism

Jacek Malczewski, Introduction, 1890

Józef Chełmoński, Team of Four, 1881

Aleksander Gierymski, Evening on the Seine, 1893

Anna Bilińska-Bohdanowiczowa, Self-portrait with a Palette, 1887

Władysław Podkowiński, Frenzy, 1894

Józef Brandt, The Struggle for the Turkish Banner, 1879

Introduction

Jan Matejko, The Prussian Homage, 1882